Language, Culture and Knowledge in Context; A Functional-Cognitive Approach; Nolan

Brian Nolan [+–]

Technological University Dublin (retired)

Dr. Brian Nolan is a retired Head of School of Informatics and Engineering at the Technological University Dublin, in Ireland. His research interests include linguistic theory at the morpho-syntactic semantic interface, argument structure and valence, constructions in grammar, event structure in language, the architecture of the lexicon and computational approaches to language processing, computational linguistics, speech act theory, context and common ground. His linguistic work has been in the functional linguistic model of Role and Reference Grammar and he has published extensively internationally. In 2012 Dr. Nolan published his book with Equinox on the linguistic structure of Irish in a Role and Reference Grammar account entitled The structure of Modern Irish: A functional account. In 2013, Benjamins published his co-edited volume Linking constructions into functional linguistics – The role of constructions in grammar in their Studies in Language Companion series. His co-edited Benjamin volume on computational linguistics and linguistic theory, Language processing and grammars: The role of functionally oriented computational models was published in 2014, also in their Studies in Language Companion series. He also co-edited a Benjamins book on ‘Causation, transfer and permission’ in linguistic theory, which appeared in early 2015. In January 2017, Benjamins published his co-edited book on complex predication entitled Argument realisation in complex predicates and complex events: Verb verb constructions at the syntax semantic interface. In 2019, Dr. Nolan co-edited a volume with Cambridge Scholars Publishing on the ‘Linguistic perspectives on the construction of meaning and knowledge: The linguistic, pragmatic, ontological and computational dimensions’.

This volume investigates the nature of language, culture, knowledge, and context, and their interrelationships. Each of these is defined — in terms of their relationship to language in particular, and to identify their respective properties. What exactly is meant by the term knowledge and what are the different kinds of knowledge? How might this be shared in a dialogue between two interlocutors, within a shared common ground, in the realisation of successful speech acts?

Cultural and other knowledge is also found within the linguistic landscape and the artefacts within our environment. The book explores the ways that language is central to expressions of knowledge and culture. The purpose of the book is therefore to draw a comprehensive and representative picture of the dimensions of meaning, emerging from the interrelationship between these domains of language, culture, knowledge, and context.

Prelims

List of Figures vii

Chapter 1

Introduction [+–] 1-14

Chapter 1 is the introduction to the volume.

Chapter 2

Language and Culture [+–] 15-42

In Chapter 2, Language and culture, we examine a number of approaches to characterising language. We argue that language is a tool that can be put to many useful and creative tasks, and that the things in the world, entities and actions, are reflected in language. We mentioned already that language allows us to communicate regarding the ‘things’ of interest to a community. In this sense, language can be considered as a cognitive instrument for capturing the shared knowledge ontology of a speech community. Also examined is the notion of culture, and how one might seek to define it in some appropriate way. Culture is quite an abstract, and complex, term that has been defined in many ways over the years. However, there is still no unifying definition of culture. Typically, culture is considered to concern the beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of people.

Chapter 3

The Nature of Worldview [+–] 43-53

In Chapter 3, The nature of worldview, we examine the notion of worldview, its importance to how we perceive, conceive and experience, and act in the world. A worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual and society encompassing the whole of the individual’s or society’s knowledge. We touch upon the relationship between language and worldview. We discuss the use of the term worldview as introduced by von Humboldt, the German philosopher. Many linguists believe that each language system opens up a new world for us, in which the concepts with which we speak and think, are shaped differently. This is controversial and not yet proven by any means. We briefly survey what evidence might provide support for this perspective, and offer relevant definitions of the term worldview, and examine the functions a worldview provides to us.

Chapter 4

The Linguistic Landscape [+–] 55-77

In Chapter 4, The linguistic landscape, we discuss the linguistic landscape as an environment where public displays, that incorporate language, act and function as a form of sign. The visible use of language on signs in the public environment constitutes the linguistic landscape of a place. We examine the functions of linguistic landscape as supporting cultural identity and providing important identity markers of communities. As signs in the linguistic landscape consist of a mix of visual and textual elements, we explore the linguistic and visual structures within the realm of visual communication and visual semiotics. People inhabit this human linguistic landscape in time and space. Language on these public signs is a specific type of language use which is distinct from other forms of written and spoken communication. We include a case study on the linguistic landscape and cultural identity.

Chapter 5

The Nature of Cultural Artefacts [+–] 79-99

Chapter 5, The nature of cultural artefacts, examines the circumstance that, in our environment we are surrounded by the artefacts of our society and our culture. We interact with our world via artefacts and in many ways, they enhance the quality of our lives, and often have significant culture value. These artefacts have a function, purpose and a utility of some kind. In virtue of their ability to retain a cultural significance, the artefacts we value are important because they have the potential to reveal distinctive features of the human mind. Our judgment about the nature and identity of an artefact is sensitive to the context in which we use it, or indeed to the task at hand.

Chapter 6

Cultural Models and Way of Life [+–] 101-109

In Chapter 6, Cultural models and way of life, we discuss how way of life is defined as the habits, customs, and beliefs of a particular person or group of people. It is a style of living that reflects the attitudes of a person or group, and thereby reflects the cultural models of that society. What then are individual lifestyles, and a way of life, and how do these relate to cultural models? Within cultural and social frames, people develop individual lifestyles, and a way of life. The notion of lifestyle therefore motivates the individual’s active choice of cultural expressions. An individual’s choice of lifestyle, along with their normal everyday activities, is broadly determined by the society and culture in which they belong and the positions occupied within that society and culture. We find, however, that the beliefs, desires, intentions, worldview, and life goals of people are not fully governed by their social or cultural membership. A way of life is developed and maintained social and cultural structures intersect, along with an individual’s own actions and choices.

Chapter 7

Knowledge and its Representation [+–] 111-122

In Chapter 7, Knowledge and its representation, we delve into elements of the theory of knowledge, and look at some of the characteristic questions including: what is knowledge? and what types of knowledge are there? We can distinguish, for example, between knowledge of propositions, or propositional knowledge, and know-how, or ability knowledge. The goal of a theory of knowledge is to clarify what knowledge involves, how it is applied, and to explain its characteristic features. Any discussion of knowledge must recognise some basic linguistic facts about the way that the verb know and its cognates function in discourse. In particular, it is important to recognise that to know has both a propositional and a procedural sense. This contrast is found in the matter of knowing that something is the case (THAT-knowledge) versus the practical knowledge of knowing how to perform some action to realise some end result (HOW-TO-knowledge). There are in fact more fine-grained insights into the many different kinds of knowledge. Declarative knowledge is to do with concepts, facts and entities. This type of knowledge describes what is known and includes simple statements that are asserted to be either true or false. This also includes a matrix of attributes and their values so that an entity or concept may be fully described. Procedural knowledge is to do with processes, rules, strategies, agendas and procedures. This type of knowledge describes how something operates or how a problem is solved, and provides directions on how to do something. Heuristic knowledge describes our experiential knowledge that guides the reasoning process. It is empirical and represents the knowledge compiled through the experience of solving past problems. Meta-knowledge is high-level knowledge about the other types of knowledge and how to use them, and describes knowledge about knowledge. We use this type of knowledge to guide our selection of other types of knowledge for resolving a particular issue. This type of knowledge is used to enhance the efficiency of our reasoning by directing the reasoning processes into the most promising area. Structural knowledge is to do with our sets of rules, concept relationships and concept to entities relationships. It describes actual knowledge structures within our overall mental models. Our mental model of concepts, sub-concepts, and entities with all their attributes, values, and relationships is typical of this type of knowledge.

Chapter 8

Context, Situation, and Common Ground [+–] 123-178

In Chapter 8, Context, situation, and common ground, we address how context and situation are important notions within pragmatic analysis. Within a dialogue, context helps to differentiate, for example, between what is said vs. what is meant. The nature of the contribution of context, therefore, is a central area of research interest within pragmatic analysis. We also examine context and its relation to discourse. While theories of speech acts have accounted for some of the properties of speakers and hearers, such as their knowledge, intentions or beliefs, to formulate appropriateness conditions, in many instances they have not pursued a systematic analysis of contextual conditions. Context draws on knowledge of the world and, as almost anything may become relevant for discourse, a theory of context risks becoming too large and unmanageable. However, not everything that can be understood as a knowledge background to discourse is necessarily part of its context. Developing a theory of context means selecting those elements of a communicative situation that are systematically relevant for the discourse situation. This means that there is a need to examine how situations are defined and determine criteria for what must be included in a theory of context. Context models must inform us as to how participants produce and understand discourse, and enable participants to adapt discourse to the communicative situation at the moment of communicative interaction. We also examine context and common ground, and the way in which common ground mediates the multifaceted relationship between culture and language in interaction, and communication, and how culture informs language usage. Common ground is considered to be a complex distributed structured entity important to the interface between culture, language and knowledge, where knowledge includes ontology, knowledge representation, reasoning, cultural schemata, cultural metaphors and cultural conceptualisations. We address the question of how theories of language might effectively characterise contextual knowledge and the cultural connection. One way that functionalist approaches do this is through examining speech act performatives, that is, language in interaction and use within a specific culture. We include a case study addressing how we might meet the challenges of context in the linguistic analysis of two kinds of speech act.

Chapter 9

Salience, Context, and Common Ground [+–] 179-206

Chapter 9, Salience, context, and common ground, discusses the nature of salience and its relationship to context and common ground. The chapter examines the factors that correlate with salience. Salience correlates with attention and memory access, and plays a role in information packaging of utterances in a dialogue. The information status of the discourse referents in turn corelates with accessibility and salience. A special significance is reserved for salience in a consideration of the dynamics of the construction and maintenance of common ground, and the management of knowledge and information flow. It is recognised that some knowledge can become readily available in cognition, more so than other elements of knowledge, in the communicative process. Salience can occur for both a speaker and a hearer, and when convergence occurs for both, the salient ‘thing’, enters common ground and the co-construction of common ground is established. Salience therefore selects contending entities of various kinds as candidates for inclusion into common ground.

Chapter 10

Culture and Language in Interaction [+–] 207-231

Chapter 10 examines Culture and language in interaction. We look at language in culture, art and artefact, and find that there are several ways in which visual artists use words or text in visual art. Words can be used explicitly when they are included in, or on, the visual artwork. We are all familiar with this explicit use of words within medieval art where the words assume a core prominent position. In particular, medieval illuminated manuscripts are a key example of an art form that relies on the cohesive interdependence of graphics and language where words and image contribute equally to the overall reading. In visual art forms, the explicit words are easily recognised, and are widely accepted while generally understood in virtue of the contribution they make. Indeed, as a more contemporary example, we can consider pop art and MEMEs where words are used as a visual semiotic linguistic device that has a cohesive interdependence with the images displayed. We focus on an empirical analysis and characterisation of elements of the Irish cultural narrative. In this, we are again concerned with the relationship between culture and language, and how culture informs language usage. We posit that common ground mediates this relationship in important and complex ways. We examine the application of language in the service of culture, and how we relate to our world through language. Using authentic data (art, artefact, linguistic landscape, and language), we present empirical case studies of facets of culture as a systemic model whose dimensions encompass culture, worldview, common ground, and language. Specifically, as case studies, we examine and analyse: a) the conceptualisation of the cultural schema for the celebration of the Joycean Bloomsday in Dublin, as a language related ritual, and its connection with the linguistic landscape, and b) the cultural pragmatic schema and pragmeme of ‘offers and refusal’ relating to tea drinking in an Irish social interaction context. Overall, in the characterisation of elements of a particular cultural narrative, we apply a functional-cognitive approach sensitive to cultural issues.

Chapter 11

Some Final Comments [+–] 233-237

Chapter 11, Some final comments, provides a summarising discussion to this study. The chapter reviews the aim of progressing the discussion on the sets of relationships between language, culture, knowledge, and context, and how they might influence and inform language in interaction. Our overall objective was to bring a new focus and a fresh perspective to these relationships across language, culture and knowledge, through studying language in the linguistic landscape, the language found on artefacts and in art (as a special kind of artefact), knowledge and context, and the pragmatics of language in interaction. In this, we adopted a broad functional-cognitive approach within the study, that language is not an autonomous system and that its interactions with the domain areas of interest are actually deeper, more wide-ranging and multifaceted than had perhaps been previously considered. The functional-cognitive approach taken enables a rounded perspective on the rich and complex set of relationships that are to be found to exist within and across culture and its constituent dimensions of artefact, worldview, linguistic landscape, knowledge, common ground, and language in interaction. What is important is the essential interrelatedness between all of these dimensions.

End Matter

References 239-256

Index 257-263

Reviews

This book represents an innovative and lively bringing together of ideas about culture, linguistic communication and knowledge representation. It addresses questions that are fundamental to our understanding of how humans successfully communicate through language in ever changing contexts. The author uses his mastery of the contributing disciplines of linguistics, semiotics, cultural studies and artificial intelligence to produce an enjoyable and accessible tour through a range of linguistic and cultural insights into ordinary conversation, public signs and artefacts.
Professor John Saeed, Trinity College Dublin

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Language, Culture, and Knowledge in Context

A Functional-Cognitive Approach

Brian Nolan [+–]

Technological University Dublin (retired)

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